Contents:-
I. INTRODUCTION
II. LAND AND RESOURCES
A. Rivers and Lakes
B. Climate
C. Natural Resources
D. Plants and Animals
III. POPULATION
A. Population Characteristics
B. Political Divisions
C. Principal Cities
D. Religion
E. Language
F. Education
G. Culture
IV. ECONOMY
A. Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing
B. Mining
C. Manufacturing
D. Tourism
E. Energy
F. Currency and Banking
G. Commerce and Trade
H. Labour
I. Transport
J. Communications
V. GOVERNMENT
A. Executive and Legislature
B. Political Parties
C. Judiciary
D. Health and Welfare
E. Defence
F. International Organizations
VI. HISTORY
A. Early History
B. Soviet Era
C. Independence
1. Presidential Powers
2. Political and Economic Reforms
3. Towards Consolidation
Description:-
I INTRODUCTION
II LAND AND RESOURCES
Kyrgyzstan is located at the juncture of two great central Asian mountain systems—the Tian Mountains and the Pamirs. The two systems are composed of a series of mountain chains that run mainly east to west. The republic contains the second-highest peak in the former USSR, Peak Pobedy (Russian, “victory”), which has an elevation of 7,439 m (24,406 ft). More than half of the republic’s territory lies at an elevation higher than 2,500 m (8,200 ft), and only about one eighth of Kyrgyzstan is lower than 1,500 m (4,900 ft). Glaciers and permanent snowfields cover more than 3 per cent of total land area.
A Rivers and Lakes
More than half of the country is drained by the River Naryn and other tributaries of the River Syr Darya. Numerous small and medium-size rivers drain northern Kyrgyzstan and dissipate into the deserts and semi-deserts of southern Kazakhstan. Ysyk-Köl, the largest of the republic’s many lakes and the fourth-deepest lake in the world, is located at about 1.6 km (1 mi) above sea level.
B Climate
The climate is continental, with much variation in climatic conditions. Average daily temperature in the valleys is 25° to 27° C (77° to 80.6° F) in July, and -4° C (24.8° F) in January. Conditions are much colder at higher elevations.
C Natural Resources
Kyrgyzstan is rich in mineral resources that include gold, tin, antimony, mercury, tungsten, and uranium, but has limited reserves of hydrocarbons. Gold-mining has become an important part of the economy and the Kumtor gold mine is believed to be the seventh largest in the world. The country’s rivers and mountainous terrain are valuable resources used in the production of hydroelectricity for domestic consumption and export.
D Plants and Animals
Steppe and alpine vegetation predominate, and forests occupy 3.5 per cent of the total area. Only 7 per cent of total land resources is arable. The republic is home to many rare animal species, including the Tian Shan bear, the red wolf, and the snow leopard, which are protected by government decree.
III POPULATION
The republic has a population of 4,753,003 (2001), giving a population density of 24 people per sq km (62 per sq mi). The population is clustered in two principal areas: in the Fergana Valley in the republic’s south-west, and along the River Chu in the north.
A Population Characteristics
The Kyrgyz constitute a majority of the population with 52 per cent, and Russians, who live principally in Bishkek and other industrial centres, are the largest minority with 22 per cent of the population. Uzbeks live primarily in the Fergana Valley and constitute 13 per cent of the population. Large numbers of Ukrainians, Germans, and Tatars also live in the republic. Disagreement between Uzbeks and Kyrgyz over access to land and housing in the vicinity of Osh sparked violent clashes in 1990 that left over 230 people dead. Relations between the two populations remain tense. With only 40 per cent of its population living in urban areas, Kyrgyzstan is the second least urbanized republic in the former USSR.
B Political Divisions
Kyrgyzstan is divided for administrative purposes into the municipality of Bishkek Shaary; and the six regions of Chuy Oblasty (also known as Bishkek), Jalal-Abad Oblasty, Naryn Oblasty, Osh Oblasty, Talas Oblasty, and Ysyk-Kol Oblasty (also known as Karakol).
C Principal Cities
The two largest cities are Bishkek, the capital, population 585,800 (1996 estimate), located on the River Chu; and Osh, 220,500 (1996 estimate), located in the Fergana Valley.
D Religion
About 70 per cent of the population is Sunni Muslim, and minority religions include the Christian Orthodox and Lutheran churches.
E Language
The state language is Kyrgyz, but preservation and use of the Russian language is guaranteed by the constitution. The constitution also proscribes any discrimination or denial of civil rights based on lack of knowledge or command of the state language. Kyrgyz (or Kirghiz) is a Turkic subfamily of the Altaic language family. Kyrgyz is widely used as the language of instruction in primary and secondary education, but Russian is the principal language of instruction in institutes of higher education.
F Education
Education is compulsory for nine years: four years of primary education, starting at the age of six, is followed by five years of lower secondary education. Further studies are then possible in specialized secondary schools, or technical and vocational schools. In 1995 473,077 pupils attended primary schools and 530,854 pupils attended secondary schools. In the same period enrolment in institutes of higher education amounted to some 49,744 students. Among the 33 institutes of higher education are the Kyrgyz State University, the country’s largest university, founded in 1951, and the Kyrgyz-Russian University, founded in 1993.
G Culture
The Kyrgyz people, in common with many of their neighbours, were nomads with a distinct culture before it was eroded by Russian, and later Soviet dominance. Musical and literary traditions have their origins in the work-song genre, folk songs, and the Manas, the central Kyrgyz cycle of epic tales. Literature was heavily influenced by the Soviet era, and independence from the Soviets and ideological controls was followed by considerable changes in cultural life.
IV ECONOMY
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Kyrgyzstan, widely seen as the leader in economic reform among former Soviet republics in Central Asia, has experienced economic stagnation since independence. GDP dropped by about 25 per cent in 1992, with an even greater proportional decline in coal and gas output. The government has resorted to issuing Soviet-style production targets for the energy sector in order to combat the drop in production.
Market reforms are proceeding despite the economic crisis. Ethnic distrust has slowed the privatization of land, but a legislative compromise on land allocation has been reached; however, problems with land titles have hampered agrarian reform and the creation of a market in land. By the mid-1990s about 50 per cent of government stock in enterprises had been sold.
A Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing
Agriculture is still a very important sector of the republic’s economy. It accounts for about 38 per cent of total GDP and about 49 per cent of total employment. Livestock-raising, especially of horses, sheep, and cattle, remains an important agricultural occupation, although the national herds have declined since the early 1990s. Extensive irrigation permits the production of cotton, grain, and fruit at lower elevations. Other agricultural crops include tobacco and silk; opium poppies are cultivated illicitly. Yields have declined since independence, largely owing to a shortage of fertilizers, although the grain harvest in 1996 showed an improvement. Economic reform has been slow in the agricultural sector; the state is still the first purchaser of agricultural products.
B Mining
Kyrgyzstan has vast mineral resources, including extensive deposits of coal, gold, antimony, and uranium. Deposits of oil and natural gas have been found in the Fergana Valley, but the republic is still highly dependent on fuel imports. Development of the Kumtor gold mine has substantially increased gold production, and five other sites with good potential for extraction have been identified. In contrast, production of tin, antimony, and uranium has fallen, but an agreement was made with Kazakhstan to resume uranium processing in 1998.
C Manufacturing
Manufacturing was limited to processing agricultural products, but light industry expanded to include machinery and electrical products; however, output from this sector almost halved in the five years to 1994. Studies have been made to evaluate new light industries, including textile production, that will enable the processing of primary products.
D Tourism
There was little tourism during the Soviet era, but the unspoilt natural beauty of the mountains and Lake Ysyk-Köl are considered to be potentially valuable assets. It is reported that agreement has been reached on financing improvements in transport between Bishkek and Ysyk-Köl.
E Energy
Kyrgyzstan exports the surplus electricity that is primarily generated by hydroelectric power, to Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and Tajikistan. Electricity exports amounted to some US$41 million in 1995 and it is estimated that only about 15 per cent of the potential hydroelectric power generated is currently utilized. There is a deficiency of hydrocarbon fuels and in the same period expenditure on imported fuel amounted to some US$179.4 million.
F Currency and Banking
The Kyrgyz government has also proceeded with currency reform, and has made its central bank independent of government and parliamentary control. Kyrgyzstan became the first former Soviet republic in Central Asia to introduce its own currency, the som, in 1993 (48.3041 som equal US$1; 2001). The introduction of the som violated rules established by the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and was opposed by leaders in several neighbouring states. The National Bank of the Kyrgyz Republic is the central bank and was founded in 1992. In 1996 there were 18 commercial banks trading and in 1997 the central bank introduced measures to ensure stability in the banking system.
G Commerce and Trade
Exports totalled some US$500 million and imports some US$818 million in 1999. Russia remains one of the principal trading partners and trade with countries within the CIS was estimated to account for more than 35 per cent of total exports in the mid-1990s. Of the non-CIS trade partners, Turkey is a leading source of imports and China the main destination for exports.
H Labour
The labour force in 1999 totalled some 2,086,913 people. It was estimated that the agricultural sector accounted for 49 per cent of the total; the industrial sector about 9 per cent; and the services sector some 35 per cent of the total.
I Transport
Roads in 1998 totalled some 18,500 km (11,495 mi), which included 140 km (86 mi) of motorway, and 3,160 km (1,962 mi) of main roads. The railway system is small, with only 372 km (231 mi) of line, but plans have been discussed to construct a line to transport raw materials from the south to the industrial centres of the north. The Asian Development Bank and Japanese sources have agreed to partly finance the construction of a highway between Bishkek and Osh. Air transport facilities include international airports at Bishkek and Osh, and domestic air services in some regional centres.
J Communications
The telephone system dates from the 1960s and has been little improved since then; in 1999 there were about 76 lines per 1,000 inhabitants, largely concentrated in the capital. There were about 128 daily newspaper titles in the early 1990s and they are reasonably free from censorship although they suffered some restriction in the mid-1990s.
V GOVERNMENT
In a 1991 referendum held in nine republics, the majority in Kyrgyzstan favoured retaining a federation within the USSR. The transition to independence and economic reform was largely due to the election of Askar Akayev to the office of executive president of the Kyrgyz Supreme Soviet in 1990. Akayev, formerly a professor of mathematics, never served in the Communist Party apparatus. He took office after winning an uncontested election in 1991. Since becoming president, Akayev has acquired extensive powers, including the right to appoint and dismiss government officials. He abolished the old system of local soviets (councils); the new system of appointed governors allows him direct control over local affairs. Friction has developed between Akayev and a coalition of opposition groups over foreign policy, the allocation of political power, and land privatization. Akayev is a strong supporter of the CIS.
A Executive and Legislature
Executive power is vested in the president, who is elected for a five-year term by universal suffrage; all citizens over the age of 18 years are eligible to vote. The president is head of state and commander-in-chief of the armed forces and may only serve for two consecutive terms in office. Legislative power is vested in the bicameral 105-seat Zhogorku Kenesh (Supreme Council), which comprises a 60-member Legislative Assembly (the lower chamber) and the 45-member People's Assembly (upper chamber), which represents regional interests; members of both chambers are elected for a period of five years by universal suffrage. The prime minister, government ministers, and leading state officers are appointed by the president.
B Political Parties
There is a broad spectrum of opposition parties including the Kyrgyz Communist Party, which still has significant support; the Agrarian Party of Kyrgyzstan; the Asaba Party of National Revival; the centrist Republican Popular Party of Kyrgyzstan; and the Slavic Association Soglasiye (Accord).
C Judiciary
Justice is administered by the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court, the Higher Arbitration Court, and a system of local courts. The Constitutional Court is the supreme judicial body upholding the constitution and approving any modifications; judges are nominated by the president and appointed by the Zhorgorku Kenesh for a period of ten years. The Supreme Court is the highest court in the administration of civil and criminal justice and its judges and those of the Higher Court of Arbitration are nominated by the president and appointed by the Zhorgorku Kenesh for a period of ten years. Concerns have been reported that criminal trials of opposition politicians and journalists have been politically inspired.
D Health and Welfare
A decline in living standards in the early 1990s has been reflected in an increase in infant mortality; the rate was 77 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2001. In 1999 there were 331 people for every doctor, and in 1995, 12.9 per cent of the national budget was spent on health care. Life expectancy in 2001 was 59 years for men and 68 years for women.
E Defence
The armed forces of the republic in 1999 totalled 9,000, comprising 6,600 personnel in the army and 2,400 in the air force; of these, 11,000 were conscripts who serve for a period of 18 months. In addition there were 5,000 paramilitary border guards.
F International Organizations
Krygyzstan has been a member of the CIS since 1991, and is also a member of the Partnership for Peace (PFP); the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE); the Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO); and the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC).
VI HISTORY
A Early History The Kyrgyz people were first mentioned in Chinese chronicles in the 2nd century bc. In about the 16th century they migrated west to settle in the area that is now Kyrgyzstan. The region was conquered by the Oirots, a Mongolian people, in the late 17th century and came under the Kokand khanate in the 19th century. The first Russian penetration of the region took place in 1855, and in 1876 tsarist forces defeated the khanate and incorporated present-day Kyrgyzstan into the Russian Empire. Until the Russian Revolution of 1917, the area was ruled as part of the Turkistan kray (territory). In 1916 many Kyrgyz and other Central Asian peoples revolted against Russian rule. The tsarist regime responded with force, which caused many Kyrgyz to seek refuge across the border in China.
B Soviet Era
After the Russian Revolution, the Kyrgyz resisted but were defeated by Bolshevik forces. In 1921 the area became part of the Turkistan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (ASSR)—which also included portions of present-day Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan—within the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic (RSFSR). In 1924 the area became the Kara-Kirgiz Autonomous Oblast (AO) of the Kirgiz ASSR within the RSFSR. Its name was changed to the Kirgiz AO in 1925. In 1926 it was upgraded to an autonomous republic, and it became a fully fledged constituent republic of the USSR in 1936. Beginning in the late 1920s, the republic experienced extreme cultural and political repression, saw the influx of Russians and other peoples in large numbers, and underwent large-scale industrialization.
C Independence
C1 Presidential Powers
The collapse of Communism in the USSR in 1991 led to the republic’s independence as Kyrgyzstan. The new state joined the UN in 1992. In September 1994 the president of the republic, Askar Akayev, dissolved Parliament, and a referendum on constitutional reform, resulting in a smaller, bicameral legislature, was put to the electorate and received widespread support in October. An Interstate Council was established in February 1996 to oversee the trilateral economic union with Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. The proposal in September to hold a referendum on extending President Akayev’s tenure until 2001 was rejected, although he was re-elected for a second five-year term as president in December. Following an earlier referendum, which gave the president sweeping new powers, the government of Apas Jumagulov resigned in February, thus enabling the president to use his new powers of appointment. Jumagulov continued in office in a caretaker capacity. President Akayev signed a decree in November that permitted the private ownership of land. Presidential decrees were signed in December that reshuffled and reduced the number of ministries in the government. An agreement was signed with Russia in March 1997 that provided for the continued joint guarding of Tajikistan’s border with Afghanistan. The unstable situation in Tajikistan had exacerbated drug trafficking and migration problems on the southern borders of the CIS and the joint guarding was to continue to the end of 1997.
C2 Political and Economic Reforms
The deputy prime minister with responsibility for agrarian policy, Bekbolot Talgarbekov, was dismissed in April, and President Akayev announced the suspension of the privatization programme. It was also proposed to establish a presidential commission to investigate the sale of state assets and the management of the programme. An agreement was reached in October to lease four Kyrgyzstan military installations to Russia and for the provision of military training and equipment maintenance for the Kyrgyz army. A new law was approved in November that protected the privacy of individuals and curbed the ability of the media to report criminal investigations until a verdict had been reached. The death penalty was abolished in January 1998 and was replaced with a sentence of 30 years’ imprisonment. President Akayev signed a decree in January that aimed to increase usage of the Kyrgyz language. On March 25, 1998, Kubanychbek Jumaliyev became prime minister. A referendum on constitutional amendments was held in October. Among the amendments which achieved widespread support were measures dealing with private land ownership, legislative and electoral reform, and freedom of speech. President Akayev dismissed his government in December, citing the undermining of the economy, and serious depreciation of the currency, as reasons. Jumabek Ibraimov was appointed prime minister, and President Akayev gave the new premier greater powers to appoint and dismiss ministers and departmental heads. In February 1999 Ibraimov dismissed three leading officials for embezzlement; legislative elections were announced for February 2000.
Following the death of Ibraimov in April 1999, Amangeldi Muraliev was appointed to succeed him. Faced with an upsurge of militant Islamic rebel activity in the border area with Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, Akayev ordered air raids in August on guerrilla strongholds in the south of the country, centred on the town of Batken. The elections of February 2000, in which 15 of the 105 legislative seats were contested between parties rather than "independent" individuals, saw the Communists gain the largest share of the vote with 27 per cent. However, many of the main opposition parties were banned and the failure of the main opposition figure, Felix Kulov, to win a seat, led to allegations of ballot rigging. Election results were confirmed by a run-off round in March.
C3 Towards Consolidation
In May 2000, Russian became the official language of Kyrgyzstan for the first time in the country’s independent history. The parliament voted to give it equal status with the Kyrgyz language, and to grant the Russian minority access to positions in administration and legislature; a presidential decree on dual citizenship was also approved, in an effort to halt the exodus of well-qualified Russian workers from the country. Also in May, a new opposition party, the Freedom Party, was formed in Bishkek. Kyrgyzstan agreed, in August, to co-found a unique international university serving mountain communities in the region, to be established in the Pamir mountains.
Further fighting erupted in August 2000 in Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan between government forces and rebels associated with the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan; the unrest was initially confined to the mountainous region of Batken but then spread and continued, intermittently, throughout the year. Kyrgyzstan and the neighbouring Asian republics agreed to unite forces in the struggle against the rebels who were finally defeated and reportedly forced out of the area. Kyrgyzstan continued its efforts to consolidate its position in the region, participating in a series of meetings of the “Shanghai Five” grouping together with China, Russia, Kazakhstan, and Tajikistan, and signing a ten-year treaty on cooperation and combating international terrorism, crime, and weapon and drugs trafficking.
President Akayev was returned to office for a further five-year term in a presidential election that took place in October 2000; he claimed to have received over 74 per cent of the vote, although both the opposition and international observers maintained that the election failed to meet democratic standards. The Constitutional Court endorsed election results at the beginning of the following month. In December, Akayev was inaugurated for another term, and the parliament voted to appoint Kurmanek Bakiyev, a regional governor, as prime minister.
Further efforts promoting democratization and privatization were signalled in late 2000 and early 2001. Far-reaching reforms concerning prison service, human rights, and the ombudsman office were outlined by President Akayev. A new land law was passed in December 2000, lifting a 1998 moratorium on sales of private land. A code of ethics for civil servants was introduced in January 2001.
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